Introduction
The continuing loss of forests in Asia is a result of many elements. A combination of governmental mismanagement and corruption, economic development, and an ever-widening gap between classes continues to cause deforestation across the continent. As the significance of forests both for their natural resources and their innate beauty declines, and as environmental protection remains undervalued to be replaced by immediate economic gains, deforestation continues to be a devious predator onslaught by the humans who need it most.
Deforestation in Asia by country
India
In India , deforestation began in the 19 th century with the arrival of British colonialism. In 1823, Thomas Munro, a governor of the presidency, did away with the position of forest conservator, believing that the laws of supply and demand would encourage someone to provide forestry programs privately. This grave mistake caused Indi8a four decades of rapid logging without any tree planting. Railroads and roadways built by the British exacerbated the situation.
In 1864, the German Forester Dietrich Brandis was brought to India by Governor-general Lord Dalhousie in an attempt to fix the problem. Although a forest act and heavy recruitment for spaces in a new forest department ensued, it wasn't until another decade passed that forest reserves began to be set aside under the Indian Forest Act of 1878.
These reserves however, were no sure-fire way of conquering deforestation. The livestock of villagers were herded into the reserves when village fodder was depleted. Solutions such as fencing-in grazing lands were monumental tasks that required flawlessness. Today, grazing and the gathering of firewood in reserves continue.
In some of the more arid areas of India , tree-planting programs are backed by the Drought-Prone Area Program. In many areas however, villagers overrun these projects before the trees begin to have a chance. Penalties for such things as cutting down trees are waived, never collected, or are so minor that offenders don't mind constantly paying them. Corruption outweighs incentives for adhering to land and forest acts such as increased wages.
Laos
Deforestation defies forestry projects in Laos . Instead of re-forestry, the Asian Development Bank is $11.2 million "Industrial Tree Plantation" project is seeing further deforestation and the replacement of forests with farms that only grow one crop (often cash crops). Private companies like BGA Lao Plantation Forestry Ltd. Reap commercial benefits while government subsidies further increase deforestation.
Villagers must now walk farther to collect foodstuffs and forest products necessary for their survival. Wildlife increasingly migrate out of the plantations, leaving many Lao people impoverished and the forests in grave danger of being lost to the world forever.
Armenia
Armenia is desperately trying to combat deforestation. Two organizations emerged after the energy crisis of 1992-1995 in which people combed the forests for firewood. They are Armenian Forests NGO and the Armenia Tree Project.
For both projects, the ultimate goals are to eliminate deforestation and to reforest areas which have already been depleted. This is a difficult task; however, seeing as the amount being replanted is minimal if compared to the amount being cut down. Another problem is cyclical in nature. Deforestation eventually leads to topsoil erosion. Without topsoil, any sort of agricultural rejuvenation projects are unfeasible.
In Armenia , success is slow but sure. The Armenia Tree Project works both with small community-based tree-planting programs and with Armenian Forest NGO to replant Tsitsernakaberd Park . Community based programs coax families to plant 1,000-3,000 seedlings during a period of 18 months. For each seedling that becomes a sapling, the family is paid fifty cents. This enables each participating family to supplement their incomes by $500 which is three times more than the average family makes. In Tsitsernakaberd Park , a method known as coppicing has resulted in a 100% survival rate and extensive re-growth.
Most recently, organizations have turned to the media in order to attract the attention of Armenia 's youth. Each year, thousands of trees are cut down to be exported as timber although this is environmentally unsound. Eighty percent of Armenia is now at high risk for desertification in a matter of fifty years. Through advertising campaigns on billboards throughout the nation, environmental groups will look towards the future and help prevent the destruction of Armenia 's forests.
Bangladesh
Deforestation is occurring at an alarming rate in Bangladesh . Each year, approximately 3.3% of forest cover disappears. A plethora of causes are offered depending on whom you ask. International development agencies and intergovernmental groups blame overpopulation and underdevelopment. Non-governmental organizations attribute deforestation to transnational companies, development agencies, and over-consumption of Northern industrial nations.
Like in much of Asia , deforestation is a by-product of European colonialism and the demands of industrialization. Land was cleared for the production of raw materials and cash crops, and wood was exported for various needs abroad. Theses demands coerced poor farmers to seek out more land in order to grow enough to survive on, and that meant the destruction of more forest cover.
For these people, deforestation is not something they wish to be a part of, rather a last resort. If not for slash-and-burn agriculture, death would surely ensue at high rates. Economics, social, legal, institutional, and political factors, many of which the poor and uneducated majority can't understand or control, force upon them a lifestyle they don't want and are criticized for. Not until the government steps in to help its people will Bangladesh 's environmental problems begin to be solved.
Burma
As quoted sarcastically from the WRM's bulletin No 65, "The beauties of globalization!" Commercial logging and fishing are the two main causes of deforestation in Burma .
In Burma , mangroves are cut down to make room for fish and prawn farms, their products mostly to be exported. Teak is unsustainably logged to be made into furniture.
Deforestation in highland forests cause landslides and the erosion of soil. This in turn causes sedimentation of rivers and streams. In fact, Burma 's Irrawaddy River has the fifth highest sedimentation rate in the world.
Tibet
Destruction of Tibet 's forests are the fault of military and governmental action. In Tibet , local Tibetans have to pay a fine if they cut down a tree. The Chinese government however may cut down trees anywhere it sees fit. Reforestation is non-existent.
It is common to see logging camps in Tibet where Tibetan laborers are employed by Local County 's government's to fell as directed. Truck 2 then transports the logs to China . Chinese authorities claim that forest growth exceeds tree cutting, but this is simply untrue. Currently, China seeks to increase logging in Tibet as well as throughout China . China must realize that long term losses outweigh the short term profits.
Sri Lanka
Despite its small size, Sri Lanka supports the highest level of bio-diversity per unit area in its natural forests. This bio-diversity is threatened however, as imminent over population threatens mass deforestation.
In recent years, the production of rice has risen dramatically in accordance with the rise in productivity and the need for increased cultivation. In addition, land is cleared for livestock to graze and housing to be established.
Sri-Lanka is almost self-sufficient when it comes to meeting domestic requirements in terms of forest products. It has a long history of planned forests and clear cut objectives for forest maintenance. They have maintained forest conservation as their first priority. However, enforcing the rules and regulations to protect Sri Lanka 's forests is becoming increasingly difficult.
The economic development and population increases in Sri Lanka create obstacles for managing environmental equilibrium. For Sri Lanka , improving literacy votes, the quality of education and health are all necessary steps in combating deforestation.
Philippines
Spanning the past 5 decades, 2/3 of the forests of the Philippines have been deforested, causing it to attain one of the highest deforestation rates in the world. Now, facing floods, poor water quality, infertility of soil, have lessened development opportunities and a majority of the population impoverished; the Philippines must take action with expedience.
The Philippines was Asia 's most bountiful provider of rainforest timber during the 20 th century. From 1990 to 1999, 75,000 acres a year were deforested even though logging ban was in place in some parts of the country. This is a common trend in the Philippines as forestry laws since the 1930's have not succeeded at protecting virgin and secondary growth forests and have been lax in their approach.
Deforestation became an obvious issue in the 1970's, but bans on logging were never introduced, loggers were barely supervised, and little attention was paid to working on the reducing raw log exports. In 1986, such a ban was implemented, but continuing efforts were short of success. Insufficient resources make ceasing illegal logging practices very difficult.
The Philippines , because of deforestation have become one of the hardest hit countries by natural disasters. Until the government of the Philippines can look towards the future instead of immediate economic gain potential, deforestation will continue.
Cambodia
Guerilla factions are the root cause of Cambodia 's deforestation, namely, the Party of Democratic Kampuchea or Khmer Rouge.
During the Cambodian conflict, guerilla factions and the State of Cambodia used logging to finance their war efforts. The SOC exported timber to Thailand . Thailand depended on neighboring countries like Cambodia for timber as it had to adhere to a 1989 logging ban.
With the Paris Agreements of 1991, the conflict and the logging seemed to end. On September 22, 1992, the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC) concurred with a moratorium on logging. This devastated Thai military and logging companies who now depended on Cambodian wood exports, but the illegal trade of timber carried on through the Khmer Rouge.
Even with the illegal trade, timber exports were greatly reduced. Seeing this, the Royal Cambodian government enacted a domestic ban on the exportation of timber. They then switched jurisdiction of the sale of timber from the defense ministry (who were corrupt and continued the illegal trade with Thailand ) to the finance ministry.
A huge setback occurred in 1995 along with a warning of what's to come. Under Cambodia 's co-Premiers, a logging contract with the Malaysian company Samling Corporation was established which authorized a sixty-year logging concession. The Royal Cambodian Government also permitted a fifty-year contract to be entered into with an Indonesian timber company. As if by foreshadowing Cambodia 's future, floods in the northwest killed two people, in Battambang province two children died, and in Pursat eight people died. Hundreds of farm animals and homes were destroyed by the floods. The devastating floods were a direct result of deforestation. We can only imagine what sixty more years may bring.
China
China is one of the most environmentally unsound nations in the world. Deforestation in China is a major problem and one that is being foolishly disregarded.
A major cause of deforestation in China is the production of commercial lumber; as with the Heilongjiang province which produced 465 million meters3 from 1949 to 1986. Another contributor is slash-and-burn agriculture. This type of farming destroys 62,000 ha. Another 6,000 ha. were cleared for the cultivation of silkworms and mushrooms. Additionally, 125,000 ha. were cut down for railroads, highways, and high voltage lines. Lastly, 47,000 ha. burned down in forest fires.
China 's story is quite similar to what other countries are going through. Although all the signs are there (ex: Yangtze River floods) the government is not taking enough action. If the issue of deforestation is to be solved in China , a more effective family planning program must be enforced. In addition, people must be exposed to the facts surrounding their part in preventing the destruction of forests and income- producing activities that take place outside of the agricultural field.
Japan
As a quickly industrializing nation, Japan is facing mounting environmental problems. Surprisingly, a major cause of deforestation in Japan is not from felled wood meant to be exported. In fact, Japan is the world's largest importer of wood, even importing illegally felled wood. Rather, it's from a favorite pastime, golf.
Pre World War II, Japan had only 23 golf courses. By 1956, the number had risen by 49 courses. Today however, the number of courses has rose to 1,700 with 330 more undergoing construction and an additional 1,000 more being planned.
Japan 's terrain makes the development of golf courses fairly simple when compared with dwellings or farms. Golf courses not only make it necessary to destroy forests but they initiate a host of environmental problems. Golf courses can retain only one fourth the water a forest of the equivalent area. They require three to four tons of germicides, herbicides, and pesticides each year which are harmful to humans and the environment. Despite the negative aspects surrounding the construction of golf courses, construction continues as golf becomes a more accessible sport due to Japan 's rising economic status.
Under Prime Minister Nakasone, the Resort Law lent support to the golf course explosion, rather than trying to curb it. The Resort Law serviced tax privileges to golf courses, hotels, tennis courts, ski resorts, and marina's and reversed regulations which protected land and forest preserves. All is not lost however. The Global Anti-Golf Movement began on World-No-Golf-Day (April 29, 1993) to try and spread awareness about the deforestation dilemma related to Japan's golf courses.
Kyrgyzstan
In Kyrgyzstan , a plethora of causes have led to deforestation. These include plant pests, diseases, and logging. If these patterns of environmental destruction continue, the Central Asian walnut tree is in danger of becoming extinct in 25 to 30 years.
Kyrgyzstan 's forests play a critical role in the livelihood of the people. In 2000, 52,000 hectares of walnut forests were destroyed by the gypsy moth. The largest contributor to this destruction is humans. Areas of Kyrgyzstan are overpopulated. Livestock are herded in virgin forests and farmers clear some forests to cultivate them. In addition, due to Kyrgyzstan 's socio-economic atmosphere, many people must fell woods for fires in winter to keep warm.
The effects of deforestation are numerous. The forests are disappearing and erosion is becoming more prevalent. Flooding is more common and problematic. However, there is only one forest protection agency in Kyrgyzstan , making the issue difficult to asses. Awareness of the problem is minimal. Essentially little can be done until the people of Kyrgyzstan can rely on energy sources other than wood-burning stoves.
Papua New Guinea
New Guinea holds the second largest expanse of tropical rainforest in the world. Sadly, these rainforests are threatened by logging companies from such places as Malaysia . These companies destroy the forests and make giant profits by doing so.
Deforestation in Papua New Guinea causes it to lose its wide variety of indigenous flora and fauna. Many indigenous people are coerced to choose between the lives they've always led and selling their land to loggers. El Nino hit Papua New Guinea quite hard, causing droughts and famines.
Ironically, the Southeast Asian financial crisis was good for Papua New Guinea . The jumping prices and numerous layoffs have enabled forestry planners to check negative government actions and decipher how to proceed.
Pakistan
Pakistan 's deforestation rates are alarmingly high; threatening the lives of many Pakistani's who are dependent upon them for their livelihood.
In Pakistan , as in much of the world, the most impoverished communities rely on natural resources the most. They supply the wood needed for energy and the food to be consumed. Deforestation can be attributed to rapid population growth, illegal logging, unsustainable use of natural resources and the minimal participation in reforestation programs. The important role forests play in many Pakistani's lives is the reason why some cut down trees illegally; not because they want to but because they must in order to survive.
Some are trying to take action. World Wide Fund for Nature is supplying stoves at subsidized rates that use half as much wood as normal stoves but produce as much heat. Zabta Khan Shinwari teaches villagers how medicinal plants can be collected and utilized correctly. However, as he said, "When the plants are lost, so is the knowledge of their value to humanity."
Malaysia
The people of Malaysia have always depended on the forests for food, medicine, shelter, and other necessities of life. These forests became Malaysia 's main source of industry with logging and the exportation of wood. Early on, Malaysia developed forest protection policies.
Malaysia 's first Chief Forest Officer was initiated in the early 1900's. Forest laws followed in the 1930 were established to protect and manage the forests. Criticism over Malaysia 's policies being too similar to India 's gave way to the "Interim Forest Policy for the Federation of Malaya" in 1952. This policy created the Protective Reserves which would work to educate the people and reforest land. The plan, however, never became the official national forest policy.
The national forestry policy was adopted in 1969. It was rigid and ambiguous. In other words, it was not much more than words on a piece of paper. The plan called for more public participation, production, and conservation. It also developed logging as an export industry.
Revised in 1992, the national forestry policy further outlined the brevity of the plan and emphasized research and education as deforestation in Malaysia became more of an issue. If Malaysia is to dispel the impacts of deforestation, the government must act quickly to clarify the parameters of environmental protection laws and find alternate ways of supporting Malaysia 's industrial development. |
